Changes in SLITRK1 Level in the Amygdala Mediate Chronic Neuropathic Pain-Induced Anxio-Depressive Behaviors in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Comorbid chronic neuropathic pain (NPP) and anxio-depressive disorders (ADD) have become a serious global public-health problem. The SLIT and NTRK-like 1 (SLITRK1) protein is important for synaptic remodeling and is highly expressed in the amygdala, an important brain region involved in various emotional behaviors. We examined whether SLITRK1 protein in the amygdala participates in NPP and comorbid ADD. METHODS: A chronic NPP mouse model was constructed by L5 spinal nerve ligation; changes in chronic pain and ADD-like behaviors were measured in behavioral tests. Changes in SLITRK1 protein and excitatory synaptic functional proteins in the amygdala were measured by immunofluorescence and Western blot. Adeno-associated virus was transfected into excitatory synaptic neurons in the amygdala to up-regulate the expression of SLITRK1. RESULTS: Chronic NPP-related ADD-like behavior was successfully produced in mice by L5 ligation. We found that chronic NPP and related ADD decreased amygdalar expression of SLITRK1 and proteins important for excitatory synaptic function, including Homer1, postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), and synaptophysin. Virally-mediated SLITRK1 overexpression in the amygdala produced a significant easing of chronic NPP and ADD, and restored the expression levels of Homer1, PSD95, and synaptophysin. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicated that SLITRK1 in the amygdala plays an important role in chronic pain and related ADD, and may prove to be a potential therapeutic target for chronic NPP-ADD comorbidity.

Contribution of changes in the orexin system and energy sensors in the brain in depressive disorder - a study in an animal model.

BACKGROUND: Maternal elevated glucocorticoid levels during pregnancy can affect the developing fetus, permanently altering the structure and function of its brain throughout life. Excessive action of these hormones is known to contribute to psychiatric disorders, including depression. MATERIALS: The study was performed in a rat model of depression based on prenatal administration of dexamethasone (DEX) in late pregnancy (0.1 mg/kg, days 14-21). We evaluated the effects of prenatal DEX treatment on the cognition and bioenergetic signaling pathways in the brain of adult male rats, in the frontal cortex and hippocampus, and in response to stress in adulthood, using behavioral and biochemical test batteries. RESULTS: We revealed cognitive deficits in rats prenatally treated with DEX. At the molecular level, a decrease in the orexin A and orexin B levels and downregulation of the AMPK-SIRT1-PGC1α transduction pathway in the frontal cortex of these animals were observed. In the hippocampus, a decreased expression of orexin B was found and changes in the MR/GR ratio were demonstrated. Furthermore, an increase in HDAC5 level triggered by the prenatal DEX treatment in both brain structures and a decrease in MeCP2 level in the hippocampus were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated that prenatal DEX treatment is associated with cognitive dysfunction and alterations in various proteins leading to metabolic changes in the frontal cortex, while in the hippocampus adaptation mechanisms were activated. The presented results imply that different pathophysiological metabolic processes may be involved in depression development, which may be useful in the search for novel therapies.

TREM2 regulates BV2 microglia activation and influences corticosterone-induced neuroinflammation in depressive disorders.

Depressive disorders is a serious mental illness, and its underlying pathological mechanisms remain unclear. The overactivation of microglia and neuroinflammation are thought to play an essential role in the occurrence and development of depressive disorders. TREM2, an immune protein mainly expressed in microglia, is an important part of nerve cells involved in inflammatory response. Corticosterone (CORT) is often referred to as a stress hormone and plays a role in the immune system and stress response. Therefore, this study investigated the role of TREM2 in CORT-induced BV2 cell damage and preliminarily analyzed the effects of TREM2 on JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and microglia polarization. The cell model of CORT-induced depression in vitro was established, and the effect of CORT on the activity of BV2 microglia was detected by CCK8. Plasmid transfection was used to overexpress and interfere with TREM2 in BV2 cells cultured by CORT. Western blotting, PCR, and ELISA analyzed the expression of related proteins and inflammatory factors. The results showed that CORT could affect BV2 cell proliferation and TREM2 levels. In the presence of CORT, overexpression of TREM2 decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6 and increased the levels of IL-10. Interference with TREM2 increased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6 and decreased the levels of IL-10. TREM2 can affect the release of inflammatory factors through the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and regulate the M1/M2 phenotypic transformation of microglia. TREM2 plays a role in regulating CORT-induced inflammatory responses, revealing the influence of TREM2 on the neuroinflammatory pathogenesis of depressive disorders and suggesting that TREM2 may be a new target for the prevention and treatment of depressive disorders.

Aucubin improves chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depressive behavior in mice via the GR/NF-κB/NLRP3 axis.

Eucommia ulmoides Oliv (EUO) is a traditional therapeutic drug that tonifies the liver and kidney and may improve depression. However, the mechanism of action of the main component, aucubin (AU), is unknown. To study the therapeutic effect of AU, we constructed a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) depression model in mice. Depression-like behaviors, pathological damage, hormonal changes, inflammation, intranuclear expression of glucocorticoidreceptor (GR), and hippocampal protein expression were assessed. Immunofluorescence staining of the hippocampus showed that CUMS decreased neuronal regeneration, and axons were observed to be reduced and broken. Intracellular GR expression decreased in the hippocampus and hypothalamus, and serum levels of stress hormones increased. Furthermore, molecular changes indicative of pyroptosis were observed. AU administration reversed these changes and significantly improved the depression-like behavior induced by CUMS. Our results suggested that AU improves depression by promoting the intranuclear expression of GR and inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B-mediated inflammatory activation-driven cell pyroptosis.

[Latest Findings on the Interaction Mechanism Between Depressive Disorder and Intestinal Permeability].

The intestinal barrier, a complex structure consisting of multiple layers of defense barriers, blocks the transfer of intestinal and foreign bacteria and their metabolites into the internal environment of the human body. Intestinal permeability can be used to evaluate the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Increased intestinal permeability has been observed in patients with depressive disorder. Some studies have reported an interaction between depressive disorder and intestinal barrier. Herein, we reviewed reported findings on the mechanisms of how systematic low-grade inflammation, vagal nerve dysfunction, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction cause changes in intestinal permeability in patients with depressive disorder and the pathogenic mechanism of how bacterial translocation caused by damaged intestinal barrier leads to depressive disorder. In addition, the potential mechanisms of how antidepressants improve intestinal permeability and how probiotics improve depressive disorder have been discussed.

Peripheral Regulation of Central Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Expression through the Vagus Nerve.

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is an extensively studied neurotrophin es sential for both developing the brain and maintaining adult brain function. In the adult hippocampus, BDNF is critical for maintaining adult neurogenesis. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is involved not only in memory formation and learning ability, but also mood regulation and stress responses. Accordingly, decreased levels of BDNF, accompanied by low levels of adult neurogenesis, occurs in brains of older adults with impaired cognitive function and in those of patients with major depression disorder. Therefore, elucidating the mechanisms that maintain hippocampal BDNF levels is biologically and clinically important. It has been revealed that signalling from peripheral tissues contribute to the regulation of BDNF expression in the brain across the blood-brain barrier. Moreover, recent studies indicated evidence that neuronal pathways can also be a mechanism by which peripheral tissues signal to the brain for the regulation of BDNF expression. In this review, we give an overview of the current status in the regulation of central BDNF expression by peripheral signalling, with a special interest in the regulation of hippocampal BDNF levels by signals via the vagus nerve. Finally, we discuss the relationship between signalling from peripheral tissues and age-associated control of central BDNF expression.

Circuit-wide proteomics profiling reveals brain region-specific protein signatures in the male WKY rats with endogenous depression.

BACKGROUND: Although the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat has been consistently recognized as an animal model with endogenous depression, the exact molecular mechanisms underlying its genetic susceptibility to depression remain undetermined. METHODS: Compared with the Wistar rats, the depression-like behaviors of the male WKY ones were evaluated by both the sucrose preference test and forced swimming test. Golgi staining analysis was conducted to access the dendritic morphology. TMT-labelled quantitative proteomics analyses were respectively performed in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), nucleus accumbens (NAc), and hippocampus (Hip), followed by KEGG enrichment-based clustering analysis, Venn diagram analysis, and Pearson correlation analysis. RESULTS: The WKY strain showed significant differences in both the depression-like behaviors and synaptic plasticity. Moreover, the WKY model displayed markedly distinct differentially-expressed protein (DEP) profiles, with minor differences between the WKY subgroups. A cerebral regional commonality and specificity were evident in the signaling pathways enriched in the WKY model, and a total of 15 brain region-specific DEPs were identified to closely correlate with the depression-like phenotypes (in the mPFC: Lrrc8d, Dcun1d2, and Mtnd5; in the NAc: Ccdc154, Sec14l2, Kif2a, LOC680322, Me1, Mknk1, and Ret7; in the Hip: Sec14l2, Serpinf2, LOC103694855, Fam13c, and Loxl1). Data were available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD029079. LIMITATIONS: Female WKY rats are not included, and the roles of these candidate DEPs in depression remain further elucidation. CONCLUSION: The present study further evidences the brain region-specific protein signatures in the male WKY model with endogenous depression, providing novel insights into the pathogenesis of depression in males.

Astroglial Connexins Inactivation Increases Relapse of Depressive-like Phenotype after Antidepressant Withdrawal.

Studies suggest that astrocytic connexins (Cx) have an important role in the regulation of high brain functions through their ability to establish fine-tuned communication with neurons within the tripartite synapse. In light of these properties, growing evidence suggests a role of Cx in psychiatric disorders such as major depression but also in the therapeutic activity of antidepressant drugs. However, the real impact of Cx on treatment response and the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain yet to be clarified. On this ground, the present study was designed to evaluate the functional activity of Cx in a mouse model of depression based on chronic corticosterone exposure and to determine to which extent their pharmacological inactivation influences the antidepressant-like activity of venlafaxine (VENLA). On the one hand, our results indicate that depressed mice have impaired Cx-based gap-junction and hemichannel activities. On the other hand, while VENLA exerts robust antidepressant-like activity in depressed mice; this effect is abolished by the pharmacological inhibition of Cx with carbenoxolone (CBX). Interestingly, the combination of VENLA and CBX is also associated with a higher rate of relapse after treatment withdrawal. To our knowledge, this study is one of the first to develop a model of relapse, and our results reveal that Cx-mediated dynamic neuroglial interactions play a critical role in the efficacy of monoaminergic antidepressant drugs, thus providing new targets for the treatment of depression.

Postsynaptic Proteins at Excitatory Synapses in the Brain-Relationship with Depressive Disorders.

Depressive disorders (DDs) are an increasingly common health problem that affects all age groups. DDs pathogenesis is multifactorial. However, it was proven that stress is one of the most important environmental factors contributing to the development of these conditions. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the role of the glutamatergic system in the context of pharmacotherapy of DDs. Thus, it has become increasingly important to explore the functioning of excitatory synapses in pathogenesis and pharmacological treatment of psychiatric disorders (including DDs). This knowledge may lead to the description of new mechanisms of depression and indicate new potential targets for the pharmacotherapy of illness. An excitatory synapse is a highly complex and very dynamic structure, containing a vast number of proteins. This review aimed to discuss in detail the role of the key postsynaptic proteins (e.g., NMDAR, AMPAR, mGluR5, PSD-95, Homer, NOS etc.) in the excitatory synapse and to systematize the knowledge about changes that occur in the clinical course of depression and after antidepressant treatment. In addition, a discussion on the potential use of ligands and/or modulators of postsynaptic proteins at the excitatory synapse has been presented.

Noradrenaline activation of hippocampal dopamine D1 receptors promotes antidepressant effects.

Dopamine D1 receptors (D1Rs) in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) are essential for antidepressant effects. However, the midbrain dopaminergic neurons, the major source of dopamine in the brain, only sparsely project to DG, suggesting possible activation of DG D1Rs by endogenous substances other than dopamine. We have examined this possibility using electrophysiological and biochemical techniques and found robust activation of D1Rs in mouse DG neurons by noradrenaline. Noradrenaline at the micromolar range potentiated synaptic transmission at the DG output and increased the phosphorylation of protein kinase A substrates in DG via activation of D1Rs and ß adrenergic receptors. Neuronal excitation preferentially enhanced noradrenaline-induced synaptic potentiation mediated by D1Rs with minor effects on ß-receptor-dependent potentiation. Increased voluntary exercise by wheel running also enhanced noradrenaline-induced, D1R-mediated synaptic potentiation, suggesting a distinct functional role of the noradrenaline-D1R signaling. We then examined the role of this signaling in antidepressant effects using mice exposed to chronic restraint stress. In the stressed mice, an antidepressant acting on the noradrenergic system induced a mature-to-immature change in the DG neuron phenotype, a previously proposed cellular substrate for antidepressant action. This effect was evident only in mice subjected to wheel running and blocked by a D1R antagonist. These results suggest a critical role of noradrenaline-induced activation of D1Rs in antidepressant effects in DG. Experience-dependent regulation of noradrenaline-D1R signaling may determine responsiveness to antidepressant drugs in depressive disorders.

The interplay of hypoxic and mental stress: Implications for anxiety and depressive disorders.

Adequate oxygen supply is essential for the human brain to meet its high energy demands. Therefore, elaborate molecular and systemic mechanism are in place to enable adaptation to low oxygen availability. Anxiety and depressive disorders are characterized by alterations in brain oxygen metabolism and of its components, such as mitochondria or hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-pathways. Conversely, sensitivity and tolerance to hypoxia may depend on parameters of mental stress and the severity of anxiety and depressive disorders. Here we discuss relevant mechanisms of adaptations to hypoxia, as well as their involvement in mental stress and the etiopathogenesis of anxiety and depressive disorders. We suggest that mechanisms of adaptations to hypoxia (including metabolic responses, inflammation, and the activation of chemosensitive brain regions) modulate and are modulated by stress-related pathways and associated psychiatric diseases. While severe chronic hypoxia or dysfunctional hypoxia adaptations can contribute to the pathogenesis of anxiety and depressive disorders, harnessing controlled responses to hypoxia to increase cellular and psychological resilience emerges as a novel treatment strategy for these diseases.

Associations between Autoimmunity and Depression: Serum IL-6 and IL-17 Have Directly Impact on the HAMD Scores in Patients with First-Episode Depressive Disorder.

Objective: The study is aimed at evaluating the immune-activation state before and after treatment in patients with first-episode depressive disorder (FDD) with evaluating the ILs and CRP levels and further clarifying the association between autoimmunity and the etiology and pathogenesis of FDD. Methods: We designed a case-control study. FDD patients and healthy subjects were enrolled in the FDD group and control group. Serum IL-6, IL-17, and CRP were measured before and after selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) therapy, as well as Hamilton rating scale for depression (HAMD) and life event scale (LES) scores. The correlations between IL-6 and IL-17 and HAMD and LES scores were analysed, and multiple linear regression analysis was performed for HAMD score. Results: 40 FDD patients and 40 healthy subjects were included in the FDD and control group from October 2009 to September 2012. Before treatment, the IL-6 (28.99 ± 5.51, P < 0.001) and IL-17 (41.15 ± 4.80, P < 0.001) in the FDD group were significantly higher than the control group (16.84 ± 3.78 and 21.68 ± 3.72, respectively). The C-reactive protein (CRP) level in two groups was comparable (P = 0.879). After treatment, the IL-6 (18.69 ± 5.07, P < 0.001) and IL-17 (30.67 ± 3.47, P < 0.001) levels and HAMD scores (6.73 ± 4.15) in the FDD group were significantly decreased than before treatment (P < 0.001, respectively). CRP level was slightly increased after treatment without statistically significant (P = 0.239). The HAMD score correlated with IL-6 (r = 0.638, P < 0.001) and IL-17 (r = 0.927, P < 0.001); the total LES and negative LES also correlated with IL-6 (r = 0.226, P < 0.05) (r = 0.366, P <0.001) and IL-17 (r = 0.348, P < 0.001) (r = 0.493, P < 0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis showed that both of the IL-6 and IL-17 had direct impact on HAMD score. Conclusion: The autoimmunity status was overactivated in FDD patients, and serum IL-6 and IL-17 levels had direct impact on the HAMD score. Patients who experienced more negative life events had higher activation level of autoimmunity status and HAMD scores, and serum IL-6 and IL-17 levels can be decreased by SSRI treatment.

The Role of the Microbiome-Brain-Gut Axis in the Pathogenesis of Depressive Disorder.

The role of gut microbiota and its association with the central nervous system via the microbiome-brain-gut axis has been widely discussed in the literature. The aim of this review is to investigate the impact of gut microbiota on the development of depression and underlying molecular mechanisms. There are two possible pathways in which this interaction might occur. The first one suggests that depressive disorder could lead to dysbiosis and one of the causes may be the influence on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The second one considers if changes in the composition of gut microbiota might cause depressive disorder. The mechanisms that could be responsible for this interaction include the secretion of neurotransmitters, gut peptides and the activation of the immune system. However, current knowledge on this topic does not allow for us to state an unambiguous conclusion, and future studies that take into consideration more precise stress-measurement methods are needed to further explore direct mechanisms of the interaction between gut microbiota and mental health.

Atorvastatin ameliorates depressive behaviors via regulation of α7nAChR expression by PI3K/Akt-BDNF pathway in mice.

Some of the statins have been shown to have antidepressant effects, but whether atorvastatin (AV) has antidepressant effects is unknown. This study was to investigate the effect of AV treatment on depressive behaviors. Herein, we show that AV treatment had antidepressant-like effect in physiological conditions and antidepressant effect in depressive state which depended on α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) expression in the ventral hippocampus (vHPC), but not α4ß2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α4ß2nAchR) expression in vHPC, nor the α7nAChR and α4ß2nAchR expression in dorsal hippocampus (dHPC). By using MLA, a selective α7nAChR antagonist, we investigated the role of α7nAChR in AV treatment. Behavior tests demonstrated that MLA abolished the antidepressant effect of AV. Besides, our data showed that AV treatment increased Akt phosphorylation, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), synaptic related protein synapsin and spinophilin expression. The phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 reversed AV-induced increase of BDNF expression, newborn neurons and antidepressant behavior effects. Our study suggests that AV plays an antidepressant role by regulating synaptic plasticity of vHPC through PI3K/Akt-BDNF signaling pathway, which may be a good choice for depression treatment.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A can improve depressive behavior by inhibiting hippocampal inflammation and oxidative stress through regulating HPA axis.

Depression is characterized by indifferent and slow thinking, leading to highly unfavorable social and economic burden. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is a traditional Chinese medicine and has many pharmacological properties, such as anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the underlying mechanism unraveling the effect of HSYA on depression is still unclear. Here, depression animal model was established. It was demonstrated that HSYA improved depressive behavior in rat model of depression, which increased horizontal movement, vertical movement, sucrose percent index and decreased immobility of depressed rats. Moreover, HSYA inhibited the activation of HPA signaling, inflammation and oxidative stress in brain of depressed rats. HSYA played an opposite effect on production of chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS)-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1ß). CUMS increased MDA expression but decreased SOD and GSH-Px expression, which were reversed by HSYA treatment. Furthermore, HSYA exerted a suppressive role in TLR4/NF-jB signaling pathway in brain of depressed rats. In conclusion, these findings indicted that HSYA can improve depressive behavior through inhibiting HPA signaling, repressing hippocampal inflammation and oxidative stress, which will provide a new therapeutic method for treating depression.

Understanding the biological basis of psychiatric disease: What's next?

Psychiatric disease is one of the greatest health challenges of our time. The pipeline for conceptually novel therapeutics remains low, in part because uncovering the biological mechanisms of psychiatric disease has been difficult. We asked experts researching different aspects of psychiatric disease: what do you see as the major urgent questions that need to be addressed? Where are the next frontiers, and what are the current hurdles to understanding the biological basis of psychiatric disease?

Protective effect of Myrcia pubipetala Miq. against the alterations in oxidative stress parameters in an animal model of depression induced by corticosterone.

Depression is a debilitating disorder in humans that significantly affects quality of life. As such, alternative therapies are highly sought after by patients seeking treatment for depression. Experimentally, the chronic administration of corticosterone (CORT) in rodents has been reported to promote depressive-like behaviors. Herein, animals received saline or CORT for 21 days and, during the last 7 days, they were treated with the crude hydroalcoholic extract (CHE) of Myrcia pubipetala Miq (50, 100 or 150 mg/Kg), or vehicle (distilled water), by oral route. After 24 h, animals were subjected to the open field (OFT) and forced swimming tests (FST), and then sacrificed for the removal of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex for biochemical analysis. Results showed enhanced catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, as well as an elevated formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), in the cerebral cortex of CORT-treated mice. The chronic administration of the CHE (100 and 150 mg/Kg) reduced TBARS and the increased total sulfhydryl content, and also reversed the increase in TBARS induced by CORT. In the hippocampus, CORT increased CAT and SOD activities and reduced glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) (C) activity, while Myrcia pubipetala Miq. CHE (100 and 150 mg/Kg) increased GSH-Px activity when administered alone and reversed decreased GSH-Px (100 and 150 mg/Kg) activity when given during CORT administration. Neither CORT administration nor CHE treatment significantly altered the immobility time of the animals in FST and no changes were observed in the locomotor activity of the animals in the OFT. Findings indicate that the CHE of Myrcia pubipetala Miq. exerts antioxidant effects in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of mice induced to depression by CORT. Since phenolic compounds are reported to have antioxidant effects in this species, the effects of the CHE may be, at least in part, mediated by the presence of these compounds in Myrcia extract.

Dysmyelination by Oligodendrocyte-Specific Ablation of Ninj2 Contributes to Depressive-Like Behaviors.

Depression is a mental disorder affecting more than 300 million people in the world. Abnormalities in white matter are associated with the development of depression. Here, the authors show that mice with oligodendrocyte-specific deletion of Nerve injury-induced protein 2 （Ninj2) exhibit depressive-like behaviors. Loss of Ninj2 in oligodendrocytes inhibits oligodendrocyte development and myelination, and impairs neuronal structure and activities. Ninj2 competitively inhibits TNFα/TNFR1 signaling pathway by directly binding to TNFR1 in oligodendrocytes. Loss of Ninj2 activates TNFα-induced necroptosis, and increases C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (Ccl2) production, which might mediate the signal transduction from oligodendrocyte to neurons. Inhibition of necroptosis by Nec-1s administration synchronously restores oligodendrocyte development, improves neuronal excitability, and alleviates depressive-like behaviors. This study thus illustrates the role of Ninj2 in the development of depression and myelination, reveals the relationship between oligodendrocytes and neurons, and provides a potential therapeutic target for depression.